INDUSTRIALIZATION
PART II: THE IMPACT ON THE WORKING CLASS
[This lecture looks at
factors related to the workplace and wages. A later lecture will examine living
conditions and other aspects of the lives of urban, working-class dwellers.]
Wealth
(and lots of it) was held by very few at the top of American society. This
concentrated economic power seemed undemocratic and problematic to many
Americans. Social class divisions were exacerbated, which seemed to violate
what many thought were American principles of equality. Many Americans were
worried about social class warfare and realized that the
With
the introduction of mechanization and the assembly line in a factory setting,
the system of production was increasingly subdivided into smaller tasks. These
tasks demanded less skilled workers. We call this process de-skilling. More and more workers in our industrial
economy were semi-skilled or unskilled.
This
factory system was more efficient and increased productivity and profit for the
owners (and some would argue, ultimately, for the wealth of the nation) -- but
there were victims. Workers became like
the machines they used. Many workers felt they lost control over their work
process, and felt dislocated and alienated from their work. Many critics began asking if factory work was
at odds with human nature.
In
pre-industrial times, most workers were fairly to highly skilled and were paid
by the quality of the product. In industrial times, most workers were less
skilled and were paid by the hour or by the piece.
Clearly,
employers wanted to cut costs to maximize profits, and a key way was to cut
labor’s wages:
A.
Iron
Law of Wages: many employers
cited this “law” as justification for paying low wages. This economic principle
held that workers should be paid according to supply and demand. It meant that
business could keep wages low as long as there were workers who would accept
low wages. Because there was a surplus of labor for most of this period, it
kept wages low. The employer said: if you don’t like the pay or the work, then quit,
and I’ll replace you with the next person in line.
B.
Women
and Child Labor: another way
that employers could pay workers less.
Many working-class families lived hand-to-mouth and needed all the
supplemental income they could get, which often meant having all members of the
family, including women and children, work for wages. Employers embraced women and children workers
because they felt they could justify paying them less than adult men (even if
the women/children were doing the same work as an adult man). This was due to the prevailing cultural
conception of women and youth as inferior to adult men.
Working-class men sometimes viewed women and child
workers as a threat and
competition.
Most
child labor was dangerous and unhealthy. By 1900, nearly 1 in 5 children aged
10-15 was employed. (This figure accounts for all children of all social
classes. Surely the ratio for working class families was much higher.)
C.
Hand
to Mouth: Working-class
families often found it hard to make ends meet. Overall, wages in the era did
increase (although it did depend on the industry) – but the Cost of Living also
increased.
The
average annual wages for a family of 4 in 1890 were $380. Yet in that same year, the U.S. Census Bureau
estimated that the subsistence income for a family of 4 was $530.
In
general, workers were not sharing in the new wealth being created by industrial
capitalism.
Many
critics thought that the long hours and relentless pace were exploiting the
workers. (This was one of the first
working conditions to improve after labor unions became active.)